The Three Rs

The term “the three Rs” in science refers to replacement, reduction, and refinement, a set of guiding principles for more humane use of animals in research and testing: replacement of animals with nonsentient alternatives; reduction of the number of animals used to the minimum consistent with achieving the scientific objectives; and refinement of scientific procedures and husbandry to minimize pain and distress and improve animal welfare. The three Rs were conceived in the 1950s by polymathWilliamRussell andmicrobiologist Rex Burch and elaborated in the book The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique, which was sponsored and published by the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW) (Russell and Burch 1959). The concepts that underpin the three Rs, though, can be traced back to medical publications in the 1800s. Despite the elegance of the three Rs concept as described by Russell and Burch, the original book had little immediate impact on scientific practice. Gradually over the intervening years, however, the three Rs principles have become accepted as the fundamental ethical framework within which animal research should be conducted. They receive widespread support because they directly address the serious moral dilemma of causing animals harm for scientific purposes, but without impeding scientific or medical progress. Accordingly, the three Rs are now incorporated into national and international legislation and guidelines on the protection of animals used in research and testing. There is broad public support for the three Rs too, with opinion polls